Infant baptism

A priest pours water on the head of an infant held over the baptismal font in a Catholic Church (United States) "The Rite of Baptism for Children" ceremony

Infant baptism, also known as paedobaptism, is a Christian sacramental practice of baptizing infants and young children. Such practice is done in the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and various Protestant denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Anglicans. The practice involves baptizing infants born to believing parents as a means of initiating them into the Christian faith. Supporters of infant baptism cite biblical references to the baptism of entire households in the New Testament, as well as Jesus’ teachings on welcoming children, as justification for this approach.

In contrast, believers' baptism (credobaptism) is based on the premise that baptism should be administered only to individuals who can personally profess their faith. Those who support this view argue that baptism is a conscious act of commitment to Christianity, requiring an understanding of its significance. As a result, they maintain that only those capable of articulating their belief should participate in the sacrament. This perspective is commonly held by Baptists, Pentecostals, and other evangelical groups. Proponents of believers’ baptism argue that the absence of explicit references to infant baptism in the New Testament, along with the significance of baptism as a personal commitment.

Age

Infant baptism practices vary across Christian denominations, typically occurring within the first few weeks after birth, though some traditions perform it immediately, such as in cases of imminent death, or delay it by several months.

• In the Roman Catholic tradition, baptism is recommended within the first few weeks, or without delay if the infant is in danger of death, as outlined in the Code of Canon Law (867 §1-§2), with parents responsible for arranging the sacrament.
• The Eastern Orthodox Church baptizes infants soon after birth, granting full sacramental participation, including Communion, to affirm their spiritual dignity and incorporation into the church.
• Lutheran churches view baptism as a sacrament of grace that forgives original sin, citing God’s initiative and rejecting the concept of an “age of accountability,” typically performing it without delay.
• In the Anglican tradition, baptism, or christening, has no age restriction and signifies inclusion in the covenant community, with parents pledging to raise the child in faith until personal confirmation.
• The Reformed tradition, grounded in covenant theology where baptism replaces circumcision, usually administers the sacrament within the first week, as noted in the Westminster Confession.
• Methodists practice baptism at any age, and for infants, it represents prevenient grace, with the congregation and parents committing to the child’s spiritual upbringing.

Ceremony

The exact details of the baptismal ceremony vary among Christian denominations. Many follow a prepared ceremony, called a rite or liturgy.

Reception

All traditions begin with the reception or presentation of candidates. In the Roman Catholic Rite of Baptism for Several Children, this includes the Reception of the Children and a Liturgy of the Word with Scripture readings, homily, and intercessions. Similarly, Episcopal and Lutheran rites open with the Presentation and Examination of Candidates, including questions to parents, sponsors, or godparents. This phase highlights communal recognition and prepares candidates (and their families) for baptism. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the rite opens with the "reception of the catechumens," where the celebrant prays for the candidate to become “a reason-endowed sheep in the holy flock of your Christ, an honorable member of your Church, a child of the light, and an heir of your Kingdom.”

Prayer & anointment

Prayers and symbolic anointings mark spiritual preparation. The Roman Catholic rite includes a Prayer of Exorcism and Anointing before Baptism, emphasizing purification. Episcopal and Lutheran traditions incorporate Prayers for the Candidates and, in Lutheranism, a Prayer of the Church invoking the Holy Spirit. While explicit anointing is more prominent in Catholicism (e.g., post-baptismal chrismation), all rites emphasize prayer as a means of spiritual strengthening. In the Eastern Orthodox rite, multiple exorcisms are performed, and prayers are made for the water to be “the water of redemption, the water of sanctification, the purification of flesh and spirit, the loosing of bonds, the remission of sins, the illumination of the soul, the laver of regeneration, the renewal of the spirit, the gift of adoption to sonship, the garment of incorruption, the fountain of life.”

Blessing of water & baptism

The blessing of water and baptism proper are central to all rites. Roman Catholics perform a Blessing and Invocation of God over Baptismal Water, while Episcopalians and Lutherans include a Thanksgiving over the Water. Baptism itself is administered using the Trinitarian formula: Catholics, Episcopalians, and Lutherans all employ immersion or pouring “in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.” In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the celebrant prays for the water to be sanctified with “the power (energeia) of the Holy Spirit,” and the baptism is performed by triple immersion, immediately followed by Chrismation (anointing with holy oil).

Explanatory rites & seal of the spirit

Post-baptismal rituals symbolize the candidate’s new identity. Roman Catholics include Explanatory Rites: anointing with chrism (Seal of the Spirit), clothing in a white garment, presentation of a lighted candle, and the Ephphetha prayer. Episcopalians offer a Prayer for the Sevenfold Gift of the Holy Spirit, while Lutherans seal the candidate with a Prayer of the Church and present a baptismal candle. Eastern Orthodox Christians, after baptism, immediately chrismate the newly baptized, praying that the newly illumined will “please you in every deed and word, and may be a child and heir of your heavenly kingdom,” affirming a twofold transformation: normative membership in the Church and acquisition of the “regenerate states” (purification, sanctification, illumination, regeneration). These rites signify the Holy Spirit’s indwelling and the community’s welcome.

Conclusion

While baptism itself does not always include Eucharist, its communal context often ties to Eucharistic worship. For example: Roman Catholics conclude with the Lord’s Prayer and a blessing, linking baptism to the broader liturgical life of the Church. Lutherans use a Baptismal Welcome, where the congregation affirms the newly baptized, often within a Eucharistic service. Episcopalians integrate baptism into the Baptismal Covenant, aligning it with congregational vows that precede shared Eucharist. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, baptism, chrismation, and first communion are typically administered together, even to infants, as baptism is seen as full incorporation into the Church’s life, granting immediate access to the sacraments. Though not explicitly part of the baptismal rubric in all traditions, baptism is understood as initiation into a Eucharistic community.

Historical development

First century

First-century Christian baptism primarily involved adult believers, with no definitive New Testament evidence for infant baptism, though some suggest household baptisms may have included infants. Scholarly consensus holds that infant baptism emerged gradually from the late 2nd century, became widespread by the 3rd century, and was universal by the 4th-5th centuries, coexisting with believers' baptism (Acts of the Apostles 2:38–41) amid early debates.

Historian David F. Wright (2007,2005), suggests that first-century Pauline churches did not practice infant baptism. Wright describes the issue as "obscurity unresolved," noting that evidence suggests children of baptized Christians were typically not baptized until at least c. 55 AD, during Paul's ministry, though the extent of this practice remains unclear.

Despite this, some theologians argue for the early presence of infant baptism. Joachim Jeremias (2004) and William A. Strange (1996) argue that infant baptism originated in the Apostolic Age, asserting that children of converts were baptized alongside their families. Advocates cite households baptisms within Acts of the Apostles (16:15, 33) and 1 Corinthians 1:16 as potential evidence. However, the Global Dictionary of Theology (2009) acknowledges the ambiguity of these accounts, stating that while infants may have been included, the texts do not provide explicit confirmation. Jeremias argues that baptism extended to all household members because the Old Testament concept of “household” is inherently inclusive, drawing upon interpretations of 1 Samuel 22:16–19 and Genesis 17:23. Therefore, the term "house" (oikos) has been central to this debate.

Steven Nicoletti (2015), proposes that the New Testament’s silence on infant baptism may affirm its practice, drawing on the concept of “presupposition pools”—shared assumptions of the time. They argue that early Christian texts likely omitted explicit mention of infant baptism because it was widely accepted, mirroring cultural norms where infants were naturally included in religious rites.

Another line of reasoning explores parallels with Jewish traditions. The analogy between circumcision and baptism is a key argument for early infant baptism. In Jewish tradition, boys were circumcised on the eighth day, and some scholars suggest early Jewish Christians viewed baptism similarly. Additionally, Jewish proselyte baptism included entire households, including children, as a purification rite for Gentile converts to Judaism. Theologian Kurt Aland (2004) counters that this was not standard for Jewish-born children, who were typically incorporated via circumcision, not baptism, weakening the parallel to Christian practice.

Further insight comes from early Christian texts addressing the sinfulness of infants or young children. Clement of Rome (1 Clement 14.4) stated, "No one is clean from defilement, not even if his life be but one day old." Although later used out of context, this became a proof-text for baptism addressing original sin. This view aligns with Psalm 51:5, which states, "Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me," supporting the early Christian belief in humanity’s inherent sinfulness from birth. Similarly, the Didache, a church order dated to the late 1st or early 2nd century, provides instructions for adult baptism but notes that children should receive teaching to prevent future sin, without explicitly addressing their baptism. Early 1st-century Christian texts, like 1 Clement and Psalm 51:5, highlight universal sinfulness, linking baptism to sin’s remission and laying groundwork for the doctrine of original sin, later justifying infant baptism. Yet, direct evidence for the practice in this period is absent, leaving its prevalence uncertain.

Second century

Most of second-century Christian texts provide no explicit evidence for the practice of infant baptism. However, scholars like Wright and Aland identify literary traces emerging by the late second century. For example, the first clear reference to infant baptism comes from Tertullian, who opposed it or advocated for its delay. In On Baptism (c. 200 AD), he acknowledges it as an established custom but argues against it, suggesting that baptism should be delayed until individuals can personally profess faith. Strange (1996) observed that Tertullian’s opposition to infant baptism marked a departure from prevailing practice, arguing that patristic evidence suggests it was already a recognized norm. Additionally, Nuh Yilmaz (2020) notes that Tertullian's view did not resonate effectively in North African churches, where infant baptism continued as the general practice. North Africa remained the region with the strongest support for infant baptism, and according to Ferguson (1999) it may well have been where the practice originated.

Tertullian (c. 160–220 AD) opposed infant baptism in his writings, provides the first clear evidence of its practice in early North African Christianity

Additionally, some advocates cite Irenaeus of Lyon who wrote that "infants, small children, youngsters, youths, and old folk" are "born again". Scholars such as Odd Magne Bakke (2005) and David P. Nelson (1996) interpret this as a reference to baptism, though Bakke qualifies that "reborn" (renascuntur) must be understood as a technical term for baptism. Conversely, Peter Jenson (2012) and Robert L. Meyers (1988) argue that the statement lacks specificity regarding infants.

Regardless, Christianity was growing in popularity and expansion during this period, structured catechesis became essential to prepare converts for faith amid persecution and heresies. This formalized approach to baptism, emphasizing instruction, according to Nelson (1996) likely reduced the practice of infant baptism, which required no prior preparation.

Insights into early Christian apologists viewed infants and young children as sinless or morally innocent. Notable examples include:The Shepherd of Hermas (c. 100–150 AD) which portrays children as models of discipleship and moral purity, inherently innocent and free of evil, serving as an example for believers. Aristides of Athens (Apology, Chapter 15, c. 125 AD) wrote that Christian children are born sinless and, if they die in infancy, are celebrated for passing from life without sin: “And when a child is born to one of them, the Christians give thanks to God; and if the child dies in infancy, they give thanks even more, for it has passed from this life sinless.” Athenagoras of Athens (On the Resurrection of the Dead, c. 177 AD): stated that infants who die are not judged, as they "have done neither evil nor good." Justin Martyr (First Apology, 15, c. 155 AD; Second Apology, 10, c. 153 AD) described infants and children as morally neutral, sinless until they can rationally choose to sin, emphasizing free will and the "seed of the Logos." He praised the purity of "disciples from childhood," suggesting no innate sinfulness.

Third century

Clearer evidence of infant baptism emerges in the third century. Yet from the third to the early fifth century, many Christian parents postponed baptizing their children. This delay was due to several factors: (1) the belief that waiting maximized baptism's spiritual benefits, (2) the custom of performing baptism only when death was near, (3) and the reluctance of unbaptized parents to have their children baptized.

Despite this, inscriptions such as from Rome’s Catacomb of Priscilla mentions an infant who had received baptism before passing away. Such inscriptions suggest that infant baptism was practiced regularly, especially in cases of illness or impending death (Emergency baptism). Scholars like Jeremias and Ferguson examined inscriptional evidence related to infant baptism, Aland argued that third-century inscriptions offered no significant new information. By that period, infant baptism was already well attested in existing literary sources.

These existing literary sources included: Hippolytus of Rome (Apostolic Tradition 21.3-5) directed: “The little children shall be baptized first. If they can speak for themselves, let them do so; otherwise, their parents or a relative should answer on their behalf.” Origen claimed that infant baptism was an apostolic tradition passed down to the Church, though it remains uncertain whether his view stemmed from theological reasoning or scriptural exegesis. Regardless, his writings attests that the custom was already firmly rooted. Cyprian of Carthage further insisted that baptism should not be postponed, even for infants, asserting that God’s grace is "not given in greater or lesser measure based on the recipient’s age."

Fourth century

The fourth century marked a turning point for Christianity as it transitioned from persecution to a favored religion within the Roman Empire. This shift brought about divergent baptismal practices. In some areas, the longstanding catechumenate persisted, with rigorous pre-baptismal instruction exemplified by figures like Cyril of Jerusalem and Gregory of Nyssa. Simultaneously, infant baptism gained prominence, fueled by evolving theological understandings of original sin's implications.

During this period, the Church strongly condemned Pelagianism, which questioned the necessity of baptism for salvation, and affirmed that baptism must be administered without delay. For example, official decrees such as the Council of Florence’s Pro Jacobitis warned against postponing baptism, thereby underlining that infants (and others) must receive baptism promptly to secure salvation. These developments, along with texts from the Council of Carthage and the Roman Catechism that taught unbaptized infants could not attain heaven, demonstrate that by the end of the fourth century infant baptism was a widely accepted and normative practice in the Church.

Several prominent Christian leaders, such as Tertullian, Rufinus, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil of Caesarea, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria, attest to the widespread practice of infant dedication or enrollment in the catechumenate rather than immediate baptism. This custom was observed across major Christian centers, from Carthage and Milan to Constantinople and Alexandria. Consequently, in the fourth century, dedicating infants and later instructing them in the catechumenate remained the normative practice, while infant baptism was generally administered only in cases of urgent necessity (emergency baptism).

St. Augustine of Hippo being baptized in 387 AD

According to Andrew Messmer (2022), many prominent Christian leaders, though born into Christian families, were not baptized as infants but received it later in life. For instance, Novatian (200–258) was only baptized during a grave illness, while Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390) waited until around age thirty. Basil of Caesarea was baptized at approximately 27 (c. 357), and Gregory of Nyssa between ages 23 and 28. Ambrose of Milan (340–397) remained unbaptized until his sudden election as bishop in 374, and John Chrysostom (347–407) was baptized around age 20 (c. 368). Jerome (347–420) received baptism at 19 (366), and Augustine (354–430), despite his devout mother Monica’s influence, delayed his baptism until age 33 (387). This pattern reflects the widespread practice of delaying baptism, even among those raised in Christian households.

Regarding their views, the early Church Fathers held divergent views on infant baptism, reflecting the theological tensions of their era. Augustine of Hippo, in his anti-Pelagian writings, maintained that baptism was essential for cleansing original sin, asserting that only through this sacrament could infants be incorporated into Christ's flock. He issued grave warnings about the eternal consequences of dying unbaptized. In contrast, Gregory of Nazianzus adopted a more moderate position, arguing that since infants lack awareness of sin or grace, baptism should be deferred unless imminent danger threatened their lives - suggesting age three as an appropriate minimum or when children could actively participate in the rite. Jerome took a decidedly proactive stance, particularly in his correspondence with Laeta (403 AD), where he framed infant baptism as a fundamental parental obligation, implying negligence in those who delayed the sacrament. These differing perspectives illustrate the evolving theology surrounding baptismal practices in early Christianity.

According to Robin M. Jensen (2012), archaeological evidence supports the existence of diverse baptismal practices in early Christianity. The variation in baptismal font designs suggests differences in liturgical customs, while third- and fourth-century funerary inscriptions confirm that some infants received emergency baptisms - though these do not demonstrate it was a widespread norm. The interpretation of iconographic evidence remains contested, as depictions of small figures undergoing baptism could represent either the baptism of Jesus or early instances of infant baptism. This ambiguity in material evidence mirrors the theological diversity seen in textual sources from the period.

Fifth century

Medieval era miniature of an infant being baptized in a Baptismal font

By the late fifth century, theological debates increasingly emphasized original sin as the primary justification for infant baptism. The growing influence of Augustinian theology in Western Christianity found formal expression when the Council of Carthage (418 AD) affirmed that infants, while personally guiltless, bore the taint of Adam's original sin and consequently needed baptism for spiritual purification. This doctrinal development marked a significant shift in sacramental theology, transforming infant baptism from a discretionary practice to a theological necessity in Western Christian thought.

By the early sixth century, a growing emphasis on the doctrine of repeatable penance further heightened fears that unbaptized infants would suffer eternal damnation. This period saw a shift in practice: parents began engaging in formal baptismal preparation activities on behalf of their children. Over time, these preparations gave way to a consolidated ceremony, where newborn infants were baptised, anointed (confirmation), and received communion all at once to ensure that even the youngest members of the community were promptly incorporated into the salvific rite. Writings from such as John the Deacon’s letter (c. 500 AD) highlight that the Church’s teaching and practice had firmly established infant baptism as essential for salvation in response to original sin. Large fonts from this period indicate that adult baptism continued alongside infant baptism well into the sixth and seventh centuries. In the sixth century, 526 AD, eastern Roman emperor, Justinian I made infant baptism compulsory.

Middle ages

The practice of infant baptism expanded significantly during the early Middle Ages, particularly from the sixth century onward, largely due to concerns about high infant mortality rates. This led to the frequent administration of emergency baptisms (baptism in extremis), often performed in respite sanctuaries. The sacrament became firmly established as a normative practice through the Carolingian reforms of the ninth century, and was further consolidated during the Gregorian reforms of the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Theology

Agreements among infant baptizers

Based on their understanding of New Testament passages such as Colossians 2:11–12, Christians who baptize infants believe that infant baptism is the New Testament counterpart to the Old Testament circumcision. In the Old Testament, all male converts to Judaism, male infants born to Jewish parents, and male servants were circumcised as ceremony of initiation into the Jewish community. Christians who baptize infants believe that baptism has replaced Old Testament circumcision and is the religious ceremony of initiation into the Christian community.

During the medieval and Reformation eras, infant baptism was seen as a way to incorporate newborn babies into the secular community as well as inducting them into the Christian faith. Due to high rates of infant mortality, it is important to note that canon law denied unbaptized infants a Christian burial in sacred ground.

Teachings of Christian denominations practicing infant baptism

Baptism by immersion in the Eastern Orthodox Church
(Sophia Cathedral, 2005)

Different Christian denominations who practice infant baptism attach different meanings to the sacrament and explain its efficacy in different ways.

Catholic Church

The Catholic Church considers baptism, even for an infant, so important that "parents are obliged to see that their infants are baptized within the first few weeks" and, "if the infant is in danger of death, it is to be baptized without any delay." It declares: "The practice of infant Baptism is an immemorial tradition of the Church. There is explicit testimony to this practice from the second century on, and it is quite possible that, from the beginning of the apostolic preaching, when whole 'households' received baptism, infants may also have been baptized". It notes that "when the first direct evidence of infant Baptism appears in the second century, it is never presented as an innovation", that 2nd-century Irenaeus treated baptism of infants as a matter of course, and that, "at a Synod of African Bishops, St. Cyprian stated that 'God's mercy and grace should not be refused to anyone born', and the Synod, recalling that 'all human beings' are 'equal', whatever be 'their size or age', declared it lawful to baptize children 'by the second or third day after their birth'". In the 17th and 18th centuries, many infants were baptized on the day of their birth as in the cases of Francoise-Athenais, Marquise de Montespan, Jeanne Du Barry and Marie Anne de Cupis de Camargo. Infant baptism is seen as showing very clearly that salvation is an unmerited favor from God, not the fruit of human effort. "Born with a fallen human nature and tainted by original sin, children also have need of the new birth in Baptism to be freed from the power of darkness and brought into the realm of the freedom of the children of God, to which all men are called ... The Church and the parents would deny a child the priceless grace of becoming a child of God were they not to confer Baptism shortly after birth".

The church has no dogmatic official teaching regarding the fate of infants who die without baptism, and theologians of the church hold various views (in particular, many have asserted that they go to Limbo). "The Church entrusts these infants to the mercy of God."

The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith issued on 20 October 1980 an instruction on infant baptism, whose purpose was "to recall the principal points of doctrine in this field which justify the Church's constant practice down the centuries and demonstrate its permanent value in spite of the difficulties raised today". The document then indicated some general guidelines for pastoral action.

The document recalled that infant baptism has long been considered of apostolic origin, and that the first direct evidence of its practice, dating from the 2nd century, does not present it as an innovation. It then responded to objections that baptism should follow faith, that the person baptized should consciously receive the grace of the sacrament, that the person should freely accept baptism, that infant baptism is unsuitable in a society marked by instability of values and conflicts of ideas, and that the practice is inimical to a missionary outlook on the part of the church.

The instruction then gave guidelines for pastoral practice, based on two principles. The major principle is that baptism, as the sign and means of God's love that precedes any action on our part and that frees from original sin and communicates divine life, must not be delayed. The subordinate principle is that assurances must be given that the gift thus granted can grow by authentic education in the faith and Christian life. If these assurances are not really serious, there can be grounds for delaying baptism. If they are certainly absent, the sacrament should even be refused.

Accordingly, the rules for involvement on the part of practicing Christian parents must be supplemented with other considerations in the case of "families with little faith or non-Christian families". If these request that a child of theirs be baptized, there must be assurances that the child will be given the benefit of the Christian upbringing required by the sacrament. Examples of such assurances are "the choice of godparents who will take sincere care of the child, or the support of the community". If there is satisfactory assurance, i.e., "any pledge giving a well-founded hope for the Christian upbringing of the children", then "the priest cannot refuse to celebrate the sacrament without delay, as in the case of children of Christian families". If there is insufficient assurance, "it will be prudent to delay baptism", while keeping contact with the parents in the hope of securing the required conditions for celebrating the sacrament. As a last resort, enrollment of the child in a course of catechetical instruction on reaching school age can be offered in lieu of immediate celebration of baptism. The possibility of delaying infant baptism in the case of non practicing or non believing parents raises a number of questions. How can we discern that there are guarantees of an authentic Christian education? Can a priest propose an alternative celebration in the case where baptism is to be delayed? In some German speaking countries, bishops have opened the door to a "two step baptism", i.e. two celebrations separated by a time of evangelization of the parents. In this case, the rite of baptism itself is to be performed in the second celebration, when parents are supposed to have enough maturity to raise the child in the Catholic faith.

The Catechism of the Catholic Church states: "Since Baptism signifies liberation from sin and from its instigator the devil, one or more exorcisms are pronounced over the candidate". In the Roman Rite, the wording of the prayer of exorcism is: "Almighty and ever-living God, you sent your only Son into the world to cast out the power of Satan, spirit of evil, to rescue man from the kingdom of darkness and bring him into the splendour of your kingdom of light. We pray for this child: set him (her) free from original sin, make him (her) a temple of your glory, and send your Holy Spirit to dwell with him (her). Through Christ our Lord."

Eastern Churches

Christening photograph showing the oil moment and Baptism in Greek Orthodox Church

The Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East also insist on the need to have infants baptized as soon as is practicable after birth. Similar to the Catholic Church, they teach that baptism is not merely a symbol but actually conveys grace. Baptism is a sacrament because it is an "instrument" instituted by Jesus Christ to impart grace to its recipients. Infants are traditionally baptized on the eighth day, recalling the biblical injunction to circumcise on the eighth day. However, this is not mandatory. In many of these churches, the Sacred Mystery of Chrismation (Confirmation) is administered by the priest immediately after baptism. Holy Communion, in the form of consecrated wine and bread, is also given to infants after they are baptized.

Lutheran Churches

German reformer Philipp Melanchthon baptizing an infant

Lutherans practice infant baptism because they believe that God mandates it through the instruction of Jesus Christ, "Go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit", in which Jesus does not set any age limit:

The command is general. It includes infants, women, men, and teenagers, even though none of these groups is specifically named. Each of these groups is included in "all nations."

They also cite other biblical passages such as Mark 10:13-15, Mark 16:16, John 3:3-7 and Acts 2:38-39 in support of their position. For example, in the Acts of the Apostles Peter's teachings on Pentecost included children in the promise of baptism, "Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your children".

For them baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration" in which people are reborn (John 3:3–7): "baptismal regeneration". Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same. Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare". In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.

Lutherans [WELS] believe that babies are conceived and born sinful and therefore need to be born again to enter the kingdom of heaven. Through Baptism, the Holy Spirit works rebirth, creates faith in them, and saves them. Although some deny the possibility of infant faith, the Bible clearly teaches that babies can believe.

Methodist Churches

Further information: Covenant theology § Wesleyan covenant theology

A baptistry in a Methodist church

In the Methodist Churches, baptism is a sacrament of initiation into the visible church. Wesleyan covenant theology further teaches that baptism is a sign and a seal of the covenant of grace:

Of this great new-covenant blessing, baptism was therefore eminently the sign; and it represented "the pouring out" of the Spirit, "the descending" of the Spirit, the "falling" of the Spirit "upon men," by the mode in which it was administered, the pouring of water from above upon the subjects baptized. As a seal, also, or confirming sign, baptism answers to circumcision.

Infant baptism, in Methodism, is celebrated as "an acceptance of the prevenient grace of God and as a confession on the part of the church of its responsibility for children in general and for every child in particular." Methodists teach that people receive justifying grace, which is integral to salvation, after they repent and personally accept Jesus as Savior. Many Methodist denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church and Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection, practice infant baptism for families who desire it for their children, but provide a rite for child dedication for those who have a preference for credobaptism only after their child has made a personal acceptance of Jesus as his/her savior.

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Churches

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians believe that baptism, whether of infants or adults, is a "sign and seal of the covenant of grace", and that baptism admits the party baptized into the visible church. Being a member of the visible church does not guarantee salvation; though it does provide the child with many benefits, including that of one's particular congregation consenting to assist in the raising of that child in "the way he should go, (so that) when he is old he will not turn from it". Elect infants (those predestined for salvation) who die in infancy are by faith considered regenerate on the basis of God's covenant promises in the covenant of grace.

Presbyterian, Congregational and many Reformed Christians see infant baptism as the New Testament form of circumcision in the Jewish covenant. Circumcision did not create faith in the 8-day-old Jewish boy. It merely marked him as a member of God's covenant people Israel. Likewise, baptism does not create faith; it is a sign of membership in the visible covenant community.

Presbyterian, Congregational and Reformed Christians consider children of professing Christians to be members of the visible church (the covenant community). They also consider them to be full members of the local congregation where their parents are members and members of the universal church (the set of all true believers who make up the invisible church) unless and until they prove otherwise. Baptism is the mark of membership in the covenant of grace and in the universal church, although regeneration is not inseparably connected with baptism.

Contrasts between infant and adult baptism

Infant baptism can be contrasted with what is called "believer's baptism" (or credobaptism, from the Latin word credo meaning "I believe"), which is the religious practice of baptizing only individuals who personally confess faith in Jesus, therefore excluding underage children.

Pedobaptism and credobaptism are positions which bubble up from theological views at a more fundamental level of one's theological system.

• If baptism is a sign that a person is a member of God's covenant community, and if the children of believers are members of that community, it follows that the children of believers should receive the sign that they are members of God's covenant community by being baptized, as an infant is entitled to a passport that indicates the child as a member of a particular country.
• Believers and the children of believers become members of God's covenant community (or church) through baptism.
• It is believed by some Christians that in the heart of a baptized child, faith as a gift or grace from God, as distinct from an act by the person, is made present.
• It is believed by some Christians that baptism is not merely a symbol and that it has a real effect, conveying divine grace.

Arguments for infant baptism

Christians who practice infant baptism do not completely agree on the reasons for doing so, and offer different reasons in support of the practice. Among the arguments made in support of the practice are:

• Analogy with circumcision: Some Christians posit an analogy of baptism to circumcision, pointing to children, since the historic Israelite application of circumcision was to infants, not to adult converts, of which there were few. Covenant theology identifies baptism less as a statement of faith than as an assumption of identity; that is to say that infant baptism is a sign of covenantal inclusion. Assuming that what God instituted in the Old Testament continues unless the New Testament specifically abrogates it, including infants in the giving of the sign of the covenant must continue in the New Covenant. It is especially so if the practice is an important one.
• Jesus' affirmation: According to Luke 18:15-17, when parents brought their babies to Jesus, the disciples tried to prevent them from coming. Jesus becomes indignant and says, "Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of God belongs to such as these." This seems to confirm that infants can have a personal relationship with Jesus just as parents can have a personal relationship with their babies. More importantly, Jesus confirms that babies of believers belong to the kingdom of God. In other words, babies of believers are counted as believers, not unbelievers. Therefore, Jesus specifically instructs not to hinder them.
• Peter's speech: According to the Book of Acts, "Peter replied, 'Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins. And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and your children and for all who are far off—for all whom the Lord our God will call.'" (Acts 2:38–39, NIV–UK, emphasis added) Some churches within The United Methodist Church argue that the phrase "every one of you" recalls the use of the same phrase in Deuteronomy 29:10–12, where there is explicit mention of the "little ones" present; and it takes the phrase "and your children" to mean that Peter included children in the covenant community.
• Early Christian practice: Several early Church Fathers seem to have taught that infant baptism is proper; Origen states that the practice of baptizing infants is of apostolic origin.

It is worth acknowledging that critics of infant baptism have stated that when Paul contrasts infant baptism with circumcision, he intends to show that both are analogies of spiritual truth.

Arguments against infant baptism

• Infants cannot repent or believe: Baptism in Scripture always has the prerequisite of repentance and faith, which are impossible for an infant.
• No scriptural instances: There are no explicit instances of infant baptism in the scripture

Denominations and religious groups opposed to infant baptism

Trinitarian Christian denominations that oppose infant baptism include the International Christian Church, all Baptist and Anabaptist traditions and denominations, Pentecostals, Assemblies of God and more.

Several nontrinitarian religious groups also oppose infant baptism, including Oneness Pentecostals, Christadelphians, Jehovah's Witnesses, United Church of God, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

B.R. White describes the motivations behind persecution of the Anabaptists during the Reformation as follows:

Other Christians saw the baptism of each new-born baby into the secular parish community and close links between church and state as the divinely-ordained means of holding society together. Hence many other Christians saw the Anabaptists as subversive of all order. Consequently, from the earliest days, they were sharply persecuted and leaders were soon executed.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) completely rejects infant baptism. Little children are considered both born without sin and incapable of committing sin. They have no need of baptism until age eight, when they can begin to learn to discern right from wrong, and are thus accountable to God for their own actions. However, the LDS Church performs a non-saving ordinance to name and bless children, customarily performed on infants.

Confirmation

For Catholic, Methodist Christians, and Weslian Confirmation "strengthens" (the original meaning of the word "confirm") the grace of Baptism, by conferring an increase and deepening of that grace.

In Eastern Christianity, including the Eastern Catholic Churches, the sacrament of Confirmation is conferred immediately after baptism, and there is no renewal of baptismal promises. In the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, the sacrament is to be conferred at about the age of discretion (generally taken to be about 7), unless the Episcopal Conference has decided on a different age, or there is danger of death or, in the judgment of the minister, a grave reason suggests otherwise (canon 891 of the Code of Canon Law). The renewal of baptismal promises by those receiving the sacrament in the Western Catholic Church is incidental to the rite and not essentially different from the solemn renewal of their baptismal promises that is asked of all members of this church each year at the Easter Vigil service. Only in French-speaking countries has there been a development of ceremonies, quite distinct from the sacrament of Confirmation, for young Catholics to profess their faith publicly, in line with their age.

Within the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confirmation or "the laying on of hands" is an essential part of the baptismal ordinance, and to receive baptism without confirmation is to leave the ordinance incomplete. Confirmation is the conferring of the gift of the Holy Ghost as a constant companion. To confirm means to "make more sure" and the ordinance of confirmation stands as a witness of the individual becoming a member of the LDS Church and not just an acceptance of Jesus.

Opposition to infant baptism

According to Catholic legal professor and former Irish president Mary McAleese, as outlined in her doctoral thesis, infant baptism amounts to "enforced membership of the Catholic Church", which violates fundamental rights of children. These "infant conscripts ... are held to lifelong obligations of obedience" without their understanding or consent. "Parents can guide and direct [their children] but they can't impose, and what the church has failed to do is to recognize that there has to be a point at which our young people, as adults who have been baptized into the church and raised in the faith, have the chance to say 'I validate this' or 'I repudiate this'. You and I know, we live now in times where we have the right to freedom of conscience, freedom of belief, freedom of opinion, freedom of religion and freedom to change religion. The Catholic Church yet has to fully embrace that thinking."

Controversies

Baptisms have sometimes accidentally led to injuries, or deaths, such as drowning deaths, to babies. In Romania, this has served as an opportunity to revise practices.

Yazidi baptism

Baptism of a Yazidi child in Lalish

In Yazidism, children are baptized at birth and circumcision is not required, but is practiced by some due to regional customs. The Yazidi baptism is called Mor kirin (literally: 'to seal'). Traditionally, Yazidi children are baptized at birth with water from the Kaniya Sipî ('White Spring') at Lalish. It involves pouring holy water from the spring on the child's head three times.

See also

• Anabaptists
• Aqiqah
• Baptism
• Believer's baptism
• Sacraments of initiation
• Infant communion
• William Wall (theologian)

Sources

• Aland, Kurt (2004). Did the Early Church Baptize Infants?. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-541-7.
• Bakke, Odd Magne (2005). When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood in Early Christianity. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-4514-1530-8.

External links

Support

• Early Church Fathers on Baptism
• What About Holy Baptism? by Dr. A.L. Barry (Lutheran perspective)
• Baptism by Francis Schaeffer (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
• JEREMIAH 31: INFANT BAPTISM IN THE NEW COVENANT by Dr. Richard Pratt (Evangelical Presbyterian perspective)
• Chaney, James M. (2009). William the Baptist. Oakland, TN: Doulos Resources. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-4421-8560-9. OCLC 642906193. Archived from the original on 2 April 2011. (Reformed Presbyterian perspective)
• Infant Baptism Catholic Answers guide, with Imprimatur
• Early Teachings of Infant Baptism teachings on Baptism by the Church Fathers, with Imprimatur
• Infant Baptism (by Jordan Bajis, Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America website)
• Infant Baptism by Canon Tom Gordon (Orthodox Anglican perspective)
• By Water and the Spirit (United Methodist perspective)
• Infant Baptism discussed at www.CatholicBridge.com (Catholic perspective)
• Baptism, Confirmation and the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith (Anglican Church perspective)

Opposition

• Infant Baptism in the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
• A Scriptural Critique of Infant Baptism by Pastor John MacArthur
• The Assemblies of God on Baptism